Malile-kari/sazi (Filigree-making)

Malile-kari/sazi (Filigree-making), the art of creating twisted threads from gold and silver.

Malīle refers to the twisted strands of gold and silver used in malīle-duzī (filigree embroidery) and malīle-sāzī (filigree making). Filigree-making is the art of creating jewelry and some functional and decorative items using filigree threads.

Filigree work in its modern form and style did not appear abruptly in the art of Iran; what is known as filigree is the result of centuries of change and development. The history of goldsmithing* and filigree in Iran dates back to the late second millennium BCE. After mastering the techniques of smelting and casting metals, ancient Iranians gradually began crafting gold and silver jewelry. The skills of hammering, rolling (thinning(, and wire-drawing of metals later led to goldsmithing, filigree making, filigree embroidery, embroidery with metallic thread (surme-dūzī), metallic brocade (gulābtūn), and gold plating*/case hardening (ṭalā-kūbī).

Work with thin metal wires, soldering, and creating complex patterns with wire in Iran has been traced back to the pre-Islamic era. For example, there is a gold and electrum necklace strand from the first half of the first millennium BCE in the National Museum of Iran that uses twisted gold threads, bearing a very close resemblance to the art of filigree.¹ The golden bracelets discovered from two bronze coffins in an Elamite tomb in the village of Jūbjī in Rāmhurmuz County,² although not explicitly called “filigree,” exhibit techniques such as twisting, hammering, and the use of rolled gold sheets, which can be considered early precursors to filigree-making. Metalwork collections discovered in northwestern Iran display patterns of fine wirework comparable to the technological logic of filigree.³ In excavations conducted at Zīvīye, Hasanlū, and areas of West Azerbaijan, datable jewelry has been found, including star-shaped pendants and filigreed earrings.⁴ The collection known as the “Ganjīne-ye Zīvīye” (Zīvīye Hoard) is important evidence of fine metalworking in northwestern Iran. The gold and silver pieces in this collection demonstrate techniques such as wirework, plating, and working with very thin sheets, enabling discussion about the historical roots of filigree.⁵ Although researchers disagree on the precise dating of these pieces—ranging from the second to the first millennium BCE—they all confirm their technical complexity.

Examples of gold beads, necklaces, and wire-worked earrings from the Achaemenid period (550–330 BCE) are very close to later filigree work and show⁶ that the techniques for making fine wires and precise soldering were completely known in this era. Pope* and colleagues, in their book Masterpieces of Iranian Art, refer to an example of this art that was possibly used in Zoroastrian priestly vestments and resembles a small sun.⁷  Other researchers have also confirmed the existence of this craft in the Achaemenid period in their works.⁸

Artifacts from the Seleucid and Parthian eras are simpler than Achaemenid examples, but the use of rolling, gold-beating, and soldering can be observed in their construction. Although filigree in its precise meaning was used less frequently during this period, the technical skill in wire preparation and joining components provided the grounds for its continuation.⁹ Silver artifacts from the Sasanian period (224–651 CE), which feature very precise soldering, thin sheet work, and delicate repeating patterns,¹⁰ demonstrate an advanced skill that reinforced the foundation for the emergence and continuation of wire-based techniques.¹¹ The Sasanian royal crown adorned with gold wire decorations¹² and a filigreed gold belt buckle¹³ are examples of such works. The continuation of this skill into the Islamic periods—especially in the production centers of Khorasan, Azerbaijan, and northwestern Iran—coincided with the development of techniques such as granulation, wirework, and gold plating.¹⁴

From the 9^th/3rd/ and 10^th/4th/centuries onwards, metalworking workshops in cities like Nishapur, Rey, and Hamadan produced jewelry, pen cases, and silver vessels with arabesque designs and Quranic inscriptions. During this era, filigree-making, an inheritance from the Sasanians, found new expression in connection with Islam.¹⁵ From the available evidence, a necklace pendant featuring two birds sitting face-to-face with filigree patterns belongs to the early centuries of the Islamic period and exhibits considerable technical skill in its construction.¹⁶ Furthermore, examples of filigree from the Samanid period have been discovered in excavations in Nishapur and Bukhara, showing a lattice-like, orderly arrangement of metal wires. In the major jewelry production centers of the Buyid*¹⁷ and Seljuk* periods (Isfahan, Rey, Nishapur, and Hamadan), filigrees were made from twisted, very fine silver wires and placed within delicate gold or silver* frames. These details are fully evident on a bronze box decorated with silver and gold filigree,¹⁸ a famous bronze ewer with silver filigree ornamentation,¹⁹ and a bronze animal figurine with filigree decoration²⁰ from this period.

During the Ilkhanid* period, filigree designs mostly consisted of intertwined networks, arabesque flowers, and regular curved lines, sometimes adorned with turquoise and agate stones. The prevalence of Eastern tastes and the influence of Chinese motifs at the Ilkhanid court led to the appearance of cloud-band and palmette designs in some works, but the main structure of the filigree remained Iranian. The goldsmithing workshops of Tabriz and Sulṭānīyye were among the major centers for producing filigree jewelry during this era.

During the Safavid* period (1499-1722), a network of master craftsmen, workshops, and artistic-commercial exchanges formed, leading to the flourishing of fine handicrafts, including metalwork, goldsmithing, and wire-based techniques. Isfahan, as the cultural and artistic capital of Iran, was the main center for producing filigree jewelry, which was used especially in the ornaments of courtly women, harem curtains (women’s quarters curtains), and gifts for foreign guests. This art flourished in Isfahan, Yazd, and Arak. Some filigree and metal decorations from this period, including those on the entrance door of the Chahār-bāgh madrasa* in Isfahan, demonstrate the integration of metalwork and architecture within the context of the Safavid Isfahan school.

Materials and Tools

Several main and necessary tools for executing filigree-making are as follows:²¹

Furnace: Gas and coal furnaces with temperatures exceeding 1300°C are used for melting silver.

Graphite Crucible: A cylindrical container used for melting metals.

Rīche (Rīje, Rīzhe): This is a metal mold (mostly rectangular/cuboid). After melting, the silver is poured into this mold so it can later be turned into thin wire. Another type is used for producing silver or gold sheet, measuring 25 to 30 cm in length, 5 cm in width, and 5 mm in thickness.

Rolling Mill/Draw Bench: Its function is to convert the filigree ingot into wire.

Soldering Pliers: Pliers with a long handle used during soldering.

Twisting Board: Consists of two wooden pieces used for twisting silver wire.

Scissors: Used for cutting iron sheets and silver wires.

Wire Brush: Used in the final stages to remove dirt and polish artifacts.

Burnisher: Used for making the silver surface shiny and clear.

Tweezers: A type of iron pliers used for shaping wire and creating fine details.

Drawplate: Used to produce very thin silver wires of various diameters.

Crimper: Used to convert a smooth silver strip into a toothed/crimped strip.

Production Process

Filigree construction has four stages. First is the soldering stage, where the raw materials including 99% pure raw silver, beeswax, sulfuric acid, saltpeter, alum, and borax powder must be prepared. The second stage is casting and rolling the gold or silver metal. The third stage is preparing and constructing the mold. The fourth stage involves filling pre-designed molds with filigree strips and soldering the pre-designed pieces. In the final stage, the obtained products are pickled and polished. To explain: First, silver of pure grade is melted in small furnaces, then either silver wire or silver sheet -for making the sheet base and body- is cast into the special rīche molds. In the first case, the molten material is cast into a wire 20 to 25 cm long and 10 mm in diameter. In the second case, a silver base sheet is produced with dimensions of 4 by 25 cm and 2 mm thickness. Then comes the main stage: drawing and rolling the wire or the sheet.

The silver wire is drawn until it becomes as fine as silk thread. In the process of producing the sheet that comes out of the casting mold, to produce thin silver sheets, they are rolled until they reach the desired thickness of the master craftsman. In the past, the drawing process was done by hand using a drawplate and was very time-consuming, but today it is done with a rolling mill.

Finally, the thin wires are twisted together and rolled again to prepare the filigree strip. Then, using the filigree strip, the master craftsman arranges multiple pieces of flower petals, vines, teardrops, one-sided and two-sided “Vav [W letter in Persian, i.e. و]” shapes, and various geometric shapes, which are fixed onto iron sheets with beeswax. After filling the patterns and the latticework, the wax on the plates is burned off using a special torch, and the patterns on the iron plates are transferred to refractory plates for soldering using lower-grade silver and borax powder via a torch, and are welded. The piece is then ready to move to the next stage.

At the end of the work, because the torch fire may have tarnished the silver, after hammering and attaching the secondary pieces, the entire final product is pickled and whitened using dilute sulfuric acid and alum.²²

Today, filigree-making continues the ancient metalworking traditions of Iran in the cities of Isfahan, Zanjān, Tehran, and Sanandaj, each region having its own specific style. Filigree in Isfahan is delicate, lightweight, and mostly produced for decorative use, whereas pieces produced in Zanjān and Sanandaj often feature bold patterns, heavier weights, and are mostly made for functional items like trays and fruit bowls.

It is important to note that the term “malīle” in archaeological texts is not exactly equivalent to the English word “filigree” and the techniques and skills common in Isfahan’s filigree art today. Rather, by analyzing the construction process of these artifacts—that is, analyzing the type and thickness of the wire, the method of joining, the amount of solder, and their repeating patterns—it can be said that what exists in ancient texts was the “ancestor of the skill of filigree preparation.”

Among the famous Eṣfahānī goldsmiths and filigree producers of past years, the following are noteworthy: Sayyed Ebrahīm Pūr-Āzarī (d. 1969/1348), Muhammad Sādeq Helālī (d. 1988 CE), Muhammad Valī-beyk (d. 2008/1387), Abbās Yazdīzāde (d. 2019/1367), Muhammad Semsārzāde (d. 2020/1399), Aḥmad Semsārzāde (d. 2020/1399), ‛Abdul-rasūl Samī‛ ‛Ādel (d. 2021/1400), Mahdi Hedāyat-nejād (d. 2021/1400), Javād Dayyānī (d. 2021/1400), and Aḥmad Ghāelī (d. 2023/1402). Today, Eṣfahānī master artists and filigree workers including Ali Valī-beyk, Asghar Mūsavī, Muhammad Rafī‛, Mansūr Rafī‛, and Mahīn Ghāne‛ī are pioneers in this art.

/Jalil Valibeyk and Mahdi Davazdah-Emami/

Bibliography:

Ahmadī, Fāteme, zīvarāt-e dure-ye Mād va Hakhāmaneshī, Tehran: Mudarres Educational Group, Sanjesh va Dānesh, 2018/1397.

Allan, James Wilson, hunar-e fulādsāzī dar Iran, trans. Parvīz Tanāvulī, Tehran: Yasāvūlī, 2002/1381.

Allan, James Wilson, Nishapur: metalwork of the early Islamic period, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982.

Ashtarī, Mahdī, naqsh-e qāleb dar hunar, Mashhad: Jāvdān-e Kherad, 2002/1381.

Curtis, John, “Jewellery and personal ornaments”, in Forgotten empire: the world of Ancient Persia, ed. John Curtis and Nigel Tallis, London: The British Museum Press, 2005.

Fanā’ī, Zahrā, seyrī dar ṣanāye‛ dastī-ye Iran, Najaf-ābād: Islamic Azad University of Najaf-ābād, 2008/1387.

Ferrier, Ronald, hunarhā-ye Iran, trans. Parvīz Marzbān, Tehran: Farzān-e Rūz Publishing & Research, 1995/1374.

Gheybī, Mehrāsā, 35,000 sāl-e tārīkh-e zīvar ālāt-e aqvām-e Īrānī, Tehran: Hīrmand Publications, 2012/1391.

Gunter, Ann C. and Jett, Paul, Ancient Iranian metalwork in The Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and The Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1992.

Harper, Prudence Oliver, Silver vessels of the Sasanian period, vol.1, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1981.

Mehr News Agency, 2008/1387. Retrieved Dec. 15, 2025, from https://www.mehrnews.com/news/813570.

Melikian-Chirvani, Asadullah Souren, Islamic metalwork from the Iranian world: 8th-18th centuries, London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1982.

Muscarella, Oscar White, The lie became great: the forgery of ancient near eastern cultures, Netherlands: STYX Publications Groningen, 2000.

Pope, Arthur Upham, Ackerman, Phyllis, and Schroeder, Eric, shāh-kārhā-ye hunar-e Iran, trans. Parvīz Nātel Khānlarī, Tehran: Elmī va Farhangī Publishing, 2008/1387.

Pope, Arthur Upham, A survey of Persian art, vol.1-16, Tehran: Soroush Press, 1977.

Sayyed Ṣadr, Abū al-qāsem, dāyerat-ul-ma‛āref-e hunarhā-ye ṣanāye‛ dastī va ḥeraf-e marbūṭ be ān, Tehran: Sīmāy-e Dānesh, 2011/1390.

Shukūh-e Iran: guzīde-ye āthār-e be namāyesh darāmade-ye mūze-ye mellī-ye Iran dar mūze-hā-ye bartar-e dunyā, [The Splendor of Iran: A Selection of Works Exhibited by the National Museum of Iran in the World’s Top Museums], ed. Āzāde Ardakānī, Tehran: Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization, 2010/1389.

The Khalili Collections, 2026. Retrieved Jan. 31, 2026, from https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-plaque-probably-from-a-belt-jly1286.

The Met, 2026. Retrieved Jan. 31, 2026, from https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/456336.

Valībeyk, Mīrzā Ali, Interview, interviewer: Jalīl Valībeyk, June 2025/Khurdād 1404.

Ward, Rachel, felez-kārī-ye eslāmī, trans. Mahnāz Shāyastehfar, Tehran: Institute for Islamic Art Studies, 2005/1384.

1. Shukūh-e Iran, p. 28.[↩]
2. Mehr News Agency, 2008/1387.[↩]
3. Curtis, p. 132-149; Gunter and Jett, p. 64, 78, 163.[↩]
4. Ferrier, p. 187.[↩]
5. Muscarella, p. 175-198.[↩]
6. Ashtarī, naqsh-e qāleb dar hunar, p. 297.[↩]
7. Pope et al., shāh-kārhā-ye hunar-e Iran, p. 39.[↩]
8. Sayyed Ṣadr, dāyerat-ul-ma‛āref-e hunarhā-ye ṣanāye‛ dastī, p. 408; Fanā’ī, p. 155.[↩]
9. Ahmadī, pp. 55–82.[↩]
10. Harper, vol.1, p. 150.[↩]
11. Melikian-Chirvani, p. 54-55.[↩]
12. Pope, vol.6, p. 2664-2674.[↩]
13. The Khalili Collections, 2026.[↩]
14. Allan, 1982, p. 17-19.[↩]
15. Gheybī, pp. 206–216.[↩]
16. The Met, 2026.[↩]
17. Ward, felez-kārī-ye eslāmī, p. 114.[↩]
18. Melikian-Chirvani, p. 172.[↩]
19. Pope, vol.6, p. 2664-2674.[↩]
20. Allan, hunar-e fulādsāzī dar Iran, p. 234.[↩]
21. Valībeyk, Interview, June 2025/Khurdād 1404.[↩]
22. Ibid. This process relies on the experience and explanations of the veteran master, Ḥāj Mīrzā Ali Valībeyk. He was born in 1924/1303 in the Bīd-ābād neighborhood of Isfahan, and all his works in filigree-making have received approval from the Handicrafts Organization during the Pahlavi period and the Islamic Republic. Among his handmade filigree pieces are a silver Munār Junbān (Shaking Minaret), the Eiffel Tower, and numerous earrings and brooches. Notably, despite requests from major world museums, he donated the silver Munār Junbān to the Āstān-e Quds-e Raḍavī in 2020/1399.[↩]