Chahār-Bāgh ‛Abbāsī

Chahār-Bāgh ‛Abbāsī, a boulevard dating from the reign of Shah-‛Abbās I, and one of the principal symbols of the urban identity of Isfahan.

This broad and straight avenue constituted part of the extensive urban development program of Shah-‛Abbās I* (r. 1588–1629/996–1038), and its planning and construction began concurrently with the designation of Isfahan as the capital in 1597/1005 or 1598/1006.¹ Chahār-Bāgh was regarded not merely as a route of passage, but also as a recreational and ceremonial space within the city. It has been described as the backbone of Shah-‛Abbās’s expansion scheme and as the connecting axis between the old city and the newly established quarters of ‛Abbās-ābād* (originally a quarter for Tabrīzīhā or Tabāraze as referred to in the sources), Julfā*, and Gabr-ābād*, the Zoroastrian quarter.² At the same time, Chahār-Bāgh may be considered a magnificent ceremonial entrance to the new Safavid capital.³

At the time of its construction, Chahār-Bāgh lay outside the urban limits of the city.⁴ The avenue began at a small pavilion known as Jahān-Namā, adjacent to the Safavid Dawlat-khāne*, on the western edge of the city limits,⁵ extended along a north–south axis, crossed the Zāyande-Rūd*, and at its southern terminus, at the foothills of Mount Ṣuffe*, reached the royal garden of ‛Abbās-ābād (known as Hezār-Jarīb*) south of the Zāyande-Rūd. At the intersection of the avenue with the river, the Sī-u-Se Pul*(33 bridges) was constructed, the longest brick bridge in Iran. Initially, the entire route was regarded as a single street,⁶ but over time the two sections of the avenue on either side of the Zāyande-Rūd came to be known as Chahār-Bāgh-e Pāyīn (the northern half) and Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā (the southern half), the latter being longer than the former. Today, these two sections are respectively known as Chahār-Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī and Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā. Although the width and straightness of this avenue may appear unremarkable today, a comparison of its longitudinal vista with other contemporary thoroughfares of the city reveals that Chahār-Bāgh constitutes an immense open urban space, conceived as a long, linear garden.⁷ According to the accounts of authors of travelogue and the conversion of their units of measurement, the length of this avenue was approximately 3,000 to 3,300 meters, and its width 33 meters.⁸

From the very beginning of its construction, Chahār-Bāgh was referred to as a khīyābān (“avenue”) in Safavid sources.⁹ It appears that in earlier usage the term khīyābān denoted a straight and broad thoroughfare (especially within a garden), lined on both sides with rows of trees.¹⁰ Several accounts exist regarding the origin of the name Chahār-Bāgh. According to Jean Chardin, prior to the construction of the avenue, there were four enclosed gardens in this area that had been endowed to a mosque.¹¹ Shah-‛Abbās leased these four gardens in perpetuity, built the avenue, and paid an annual rent of 200 tūmāns for the gardens; as a result, the avenue gradually became known as Chahār-Bāgh.¹² André Daulier Deslandes*, the French traveler, attributed the name to the existence of four distinct gardens located around and at the end of the avenue, all of which belonged to the Shah himself.¹³
According to Engelbert Kaempfer*, the name Chahār-Bāgh derives from the fact that, as a result of the intersection of the avenue’s axis with the Zāyande-Rūd, the surrounding lands were divided into four sections.¹⁴ Among these accounts, the most noteworthy is that of Eskandar Munshī*, who states that during the planning of the avenue, in the stretch between the Darvāzeh Dawlat* and the Zāyande-Rūd, by royal command, “a chahār-bāgh was laid out on both sides of the avenue, with lofty buildings erected at the entrance of each garden … and in front of each building a large pool was constructed.”¹⁵ He employed the term chahār-bāgh to denote each individual garden constructed along the two sides of the avenue. In other words, chahār-bāgh here signifies a garden, and perhaps a deliberately designed garden. Today, chahār-bāgh is understood as a specific garden layout consisting of two perpendicular axes intersected by a water channel running along their center.¹⁶ With regard to the Chahār-Bāgh avenue, although it is not known whether the gardens on either side followed identical or differing designs, the term chahār-bāgh appears to have functioned as a general designation for these gardens. It is likely that this term was gradually extended to refer to the entire avenue.

The gardens of the northern half, extending from the Darvāze Dawlat to the midpoint of the avenue, belonged to the Shah,¹⁷ while the remaining gardens as far as Hezār-Jarīb were constructed by the city’s notables. One of the Shah’s gardens on the eastern side of the avenue was known as the Takye (Sayyed) Garden, which, according to reports, the Shah had bestowed upon one or more respected dervishes.¹⁸ According to Jean-Baptiste Tavernier*, several sacred objects were kept at its portal, and passers-by would bow in reverence as they passed by.¹⁹ Along the entire length of the avenue, the walls of the gardens on both sides shared the same appearance and height.²⁰ The garden portals were constructed at regular intervals²¹ and directly opposite one another. This symmetrical arrangement produced a harmonious and visually pleasing urban façade along the avenue.²² Each portal displayed a design unique to itself, although their overall structure was similar, consisting of a gateway or forecourt, a tall vaulted porch, and upper chambers intended for viewing the vista of Chahār-Bāgh.²³ Moreover, all the portals, as well as the two gates at the beginning and end of the avenue, were richly decorated with gilded and lapis-lazuli motifs. Many travel accounts praise the beauty of the numerous portals of Chahār-Bāgh.²⁴ Engelbert Kaempfer stated that the total number of gardens on both sides of Chahār-Bāgh amounted to thirty plots.²⁵ In historical maps from later centuries, including those by Pascal Coste,²⁶ Cherikov*, and Sayyed-Reza Khan,²⁷ discrepancies appear regarding the number of gardens as well as their names and boundaries,²⁸ which likely reflect changes in ownership and the subdivision and consolidation of properties over time.²⁹

Little is known about the construction of the avenue. In some sources, the chronogram “nahāl-ash bekām-e del-e Shah bar-āyad”³⁰ is given for the year 1596/1005,³¹ whereas according to the book ‛ālam-ārā-ye ‛abbāsī*, the planning of the avenue began in 1597/1006. It is said that construction commenced simultaneously from both ends of the avenue.³² The laying out of the gardens and the construction of the garden portals also began at the same time.³³ In 1602/1011, the first phase of the construction of the Sī-u-Se Pul was completed, and the two halves of the avenue were connected.³⁴ In 1609/1018, the second phase of the bridge was completed, and celebrations were held upon it.³⁵ It is likely that the avenue itself was also completed in this year, for from that time onward, by royal decree, promenading along the avenue and on the Sī-u-Se Pul on Wednesdays was designated exclusively for the women of the royal harem, so that they too might have the opportunity to view the beauty of the avenue and to stroll along it.³⁶
It is not known how long this practice remained in effect. In 1616/1025, when Eskandar Munshī described the avenue, all the garden buildings had been completed, the trees lining the avenue had grown tall, and the gardens on both sides of the avenue bore abundant fruit trees.³⁷

The structure of the avenue has been described in numerous travel accounts. The starting point of the avenue, the Jahān-Namā pavilion, constituted the point of connection between the Dawlat-khāne and Chahār-Bāgh, such that the Shah and members of the court entered Chahār-Bāgh from within this building. The rest of the population accessed Chahār-Bāgh through a lane adjacent to the pavilion, which led to the Naqsh-e Jahān square*.³⁸ The avenue consisted of five parallel routes. These five routes were separated by two rows of plane trees and raised pavements. The central route of the avenue, through the middle of which ran a water channel, was paved with stone and was used either for pedestrian crossing or for sitting beside the water. Parallel to the garden walls, there were two narrow stone-paved paths. The area between these paths and the plane trees was unpaved and was used for mounted traffic. The width of the lateral stone-paved paths has been reported as three or four feet (approximately one meter).³⁹ The width of the central stone-paved route on each side of the water channel was approximately 3.5 meters, allowing two horsemen to move comfortably side by side.⁴⁰ The plane trees were planted simultaneously with the construction of the avenue and at regular intervals from one another.⁴¹ Some accounts state that Shah-‛Abbās personally supervised the planting of the trees.⁴² Adam Olearius* estimated the number of plane trees along Chahār-Bāgh at more than one thousand.⁴³ It appears that the plane trees were regularly pruned from below,⁴⁴ and after several decades they had grown tall and robust, casting an extensive shade along the entire route, which came to be popularly known as the “Green Vault.”⁴⁵ The shade of the plane trees served as a place for passersby to sit and rest. The beauty of Chahār-Bāgh in this period was compared with the most famous avenues of the world and was at times regarded as unrivaled.⁴⁶

Both the northern and southern halves of the avenue sloped gently towards the river, a feature that facilitated the swift flow of water in the canal.⁴⁷ The canal had a bed of dressed stone, lacked raised edges, and was shallow; at several points along its course, short cascades were installed.⁴⁸ Kaempfer recorded the width of the canal as five feet (equivalent to 1.5 meters) and its depth as one foot (equivalent to 0.3 meters).⁴⁹ He further noted that near the river the canal water entered underground conduits and disappeared from view.⁵⁰ Along the course of the canal, at regular intervals and opposite the garden portals, large basins equipped with fountains were installed; these varied in form and size, and some were constructed of marble.⁵¹ Some of the basins were larger than others; For example, the basin located approximately two hundred paces from the Jahān-Namā pavilion is reported to have had a diameter of more than thirty feet (approximately 10 meters).⁵²

Based on indications found in travel accounts, the water intake of the canal in the northern half ran beneath the Jahān-Namā pavilion. Tavernier identified its water source as a spring located beneath the structure,⁵³ whereas, according to the map of Sultān Sayyed-Reza Khan, which largely reflects Isfahan of the Safavid period*, the source appears to have been a branch of the Jūy-Shah irrigation channel (Mādī-ye Jūy-Shah).⁵⁴ The water supply of the canal in the southern half derived from irrigation channels (mādīhā) that were diverted upstream from the Zāyande-Rūd, such as Jūy-Safīd, and were used for irrigating the ‛Abbās-ābād garden (Hezār-Jarīb or Chahār-Bāgh).⁵⁵ The gardens surrounding the avenue were predominantly planted with fruit trees.⁵⁶ Some of the gardens belonging to the Shah were opened to the public during the fruiting season for the picking and consumption of fruit.

The descriptions of the street’s environment indicate that Chahār-Bāgh functioned as a multi-purpose space. On the one hand, Chahār-Bāgh served as a ceremonial setting. It appears that Shah-‛Abbās I, with an understanding of the conditions of his time and the necessity of keeping peace with foreign powers—especially the Ottomans and India—had prepared royal spaces intended to display the grandeur of his rule. Among these was the long and magnificent axis of Chahār-Bāgh, which, as the route leading to the Dawlat-khāne of Naqsh-e Jahān, appropriately conveyed the splendor of royal authority.⁵⁷ Safavid rulers often received their official guests, such as ambassadors, along this avenue. On the other hand, Chahār-Bāgh functioned as an urban promenade for both courtiers and the general population. The avenue was watered daily, flowers were scattered upon the water in the basins,⁵⁸ and in certain locations coffee vendors spread mats and carpets along the stone edge of the central canal, where ordinary people would sit to drink coffee, eat fruit, smoke water-pipes, and at times listen to poets and storytellers.⁵⁹ It is known that at least one coffeehouse and a sherbet house existed in Chahār-Bāgh as well.⁶⁰ It is also reported that in the evenings many people, dressed elegantly, both mounted and on foot, would stroll along the avenue. The platforms of the garden portals likewise served as places where carpets were spread for sitting and smoking water-pipes.⁶¹ In addition to these functions, Chahār-Bāgh was a venue for festivities. Some public celebrations, such as the Water-Sprinkling Festival (Ābrīzān), were held there.⁶² According to one report, on days designated for Christian festivals, the avenue was reserved exclusively for them.⁶³ It further appears that certain administrative activities were also carried out in Chahār-Bāgh. The residences of emirs and state officials were located along this avenue, which led them at times to use the outer sections of their houses for administrative affairs.

In the late Safavid period, between 1704/1116 and 1714/1126, the Madrasa Sulṭānī/Chahār-Bāgh* was constructed on the eastern frontage of the northern half of the avenue by order of Shah-Sulṭān-Hussein (r. 1694–1722/1105–1135).⁶⁴
This complex and its endowments included a caravanserai (Kārvānsarā-ye Mādar Shah, the present-day ‛Abbāsī Hotel*) and the adjacent market (Bāzārcheh-ye Buland*, the present-day Hunar Bazaar*) and were erected within a section of the Bāgh-e Bulbul precinct. The construction of the Madrasa Sulṭānī, regarded as the last major monumental structure of the Safavid period, constituted the most significant transformation of the avenue in this era and was closely connected with the pronounced religious inclinations of Shah-Sulṭān-Hussein*.

Accounts by authors of travelogues indicate that the prosperity and beauty of the Chahār-Bāgh avenue persisted until the end of the Safavid period.⁶⁵ The Afghan attack on Isfahan was the first event that disrupted the normal functioning of Chahār-Bāgh and caused damage to it. The extent of this damage is unknown; however, it is known that during the reign of Nāder Shāh Afshār* (r. 1736–1747/1148–1160) and subsequently under ‛Alī-Mardān Khān* (d. 1753/1167), repairs were carried out along Chahār-Bāgh.⁶⁶ During the reign of Āqā-Muḥammad Khan Qajar (r. 1796–1797/1210–1211), Chahār-Bāgh was still described as beautiful and verdant.⁶⁷ The earliest reports indicating the decline of this urban axis date to the reign of Fatḥ-Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834/1212–1250) and to around 1799/1215. During this period, as a result of the general decline of Isfahan, population decrease, and neglect by city authorities, Chahār-Bāgh became quiet and sparsely frequented, and the pedestrian crossing and surrounding garden portals fell into ruin.⁶⁸ Robert Porter, in his description of Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā, wrote: “One circumstance alone prevents the full enjoyment and sense of perfect ease amid all this beauty, namely the poor condition of the road, whose formerly fine paving is broken in many places, rendering passage on horseback unsafe … a moment’s inattention could prove dangerous, for at any instant an aged tree might fall as a result of decay.”⁶⁹ Nevertheless, during this period most of the Safavid plane trees were still robust and green, and new plane trees were planted to replace those that were lost.⁷⁰ In 1840/1256, according to the report of Pascal Coste, French architect, all the gardens surrounding Chahār-Bāgh were abandoned, and parts of the avenue had fallen into ruin.⁷¹ Reports from several years later indicate that the water in the central canal and the basins had dried up, the fountains were broken, and much of the stone paving of the pedestrian crossing had crumbled or disappeared.⁷² With the beginning of the long governorship of Ẓell al-Sulṭān*, the son of Nāṣer al-Dīn Shah, the condition of Chahār-Bāgh deteriorated even further. At that time, the street’s trees, which were approximately two hundred years old, had grown so massive that the diameter of some reached nearly three meters, and their interiors had become hollow and cavernous.⁷³ It is said that the trees of Chahār-Bāgh would at times fall and be uprooted with every strong gust of wind due to old age and decay; moreover, whenever government authorities required tree trunks or large quantities of timber, they would readily turn to these beautiful and ancient plane trees.⁷⁴ According to Ernst Hoeltzer*, in 1869/1285 or 1286, most of the remaining trees of the avenue had been destroyed, and no new trees had been planted in their place.⁷⁵ The trees were cut down by order of Ẓell al-Sulṭān.

The number of trees and the volume of timber were so great that they were put to various uses. Part of the timber was sent to Tehran to be employed in a building that Ẓell al-Sulṭān was having constructed there (Mas‛ūdīye Palace).⁷⁶ Another portion of the wood was used for heating his barracks,⁷⁷ and a number of the trees were also sold. In the account of Henri d’Allemagne, the price of each plane tree of Chahār-Bāgh is given as twenty tūmāns.⁷⁸ This spoliation did not end with the trees. By order of Ẓell al-Sulṭān, most of the stone slabs of the canal running along the middle of the avenue, as well as the marble basins, were removed and sold.⁷⁹
It is said that after this time the overall landscape of Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā as far as Mount Ṣuffe came to resemble a desert.⁸⁰ The destruction of Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā was so extensive that d’Allemagne, referring to earlier historians, wrote: “Chahār-Bāgh once extended on the far side of the bridge as well.”⁸¹ Of the plane trees in this section, only the one adjacent to the portal of the Bāgh-e Zereshk remained.⁸²

As a result of several decades of neglect, the garden walls on both sides of the northern half of the avenue fell into ruin, and only portions of the portals remained, while “the wind scattered large amounts of dust from the remnants of those structures into the surroundings.”⁸³ In 1935/1354, the Jahān-Namā pavilion was demolished and its materials were sold.⁸⁴ It is said that this action was carried out by order of Bānū ‛Uẓmā, the sister of Ẓell al-Sulṭān, in order to shield the inner quarters of the Hasht-Behesht palace from public view.⁸⁵ The portal of the Hezār-Jarīb garden was likewise demolished by order of Ẓell al-Sulṭān in 1944/1363.⁸⁶

In the late Qajar period, Chahār-Bāgh was described as a gloomy and desolate street, frequented mainly by muleteers and the poor.⁸⁷ The only thriving point of the avenue during this period was the Chahār-Bāgh School, which continued to function.⁸⁸ The trees of the gardens lining both sides of the avenue, however, still remained dense and verdant.⁸⁹ Pierre Loti, who arrived in Isfahan in 1317 or 1318/1900, reported that numerous rose flowers* had been planted along the course of Chahār-Bāgh; in spring they blossomed abundantly, and people freely picked their flowers.⁹⁰ A photograph dating from the late Qajar period shows that agricultural cultivation was practiced in certain sections of Chahār-Bāgh.⁹¹

From around 1921/1300, and especially with the beginning of the Pahlavi period (1925/1304), renewed attention was directed toward Chahār-Bāgh. Between 1921–/1300 and 1941/1320, the northern section of Chahār-Bāgh gradually became the central avenue of Isfahan, both in terms of its position within the city’s road network and its commercial, economic, and cultural significance.⁹² The construction of east–west streets connected to Chahār-Bāgh, such as Dunbāl-e Rūdkhāne (1923/1302); the widening of older thoroughfares into new streets, such as Sheikh-Bahāʾī, ‛Abbās-ābād, and Āmādegāh* (1931–1941/1310–1320); the opening of the axis from Darvāze Dawlat to the Āb-Bakhshān* cemetery* (the present-day Shuhadā Square); the construction of Chahār-Bāgh-e Pāʾīn* (1935/1314); and the creation of the two squares of Darvāze Dawlat and Mujassame (today Enghelāb Square) between 1936 and 1938/1315–1317, on both sides of Chahār-Bāgh ‛Abbāsī, all contributed to conferring a new centrality upon the avenue. The establishment of government institutions—such as the National Bank (before 1931/1310), the Agricultural Bank (1934/1313), the Iran Insurance Company (1940/1319), and the municipal* building (1941/1320)—at Darvāze Dawlat and along Chahār-Bāgh further enhanced the importance of the avenue. Among the major transformations of Chahār-Bāgh during this period were the gravelling and asphalting of the street (1936/1315), the electrification of the avenue and installation of urban lighting (1936–1939/1315–1318), the filling in of the central canal and the construction of an open pedestrian promenade along the middle of Chahār-Bāgh, and the planting of four new rows of trees along the avenue. At this time, the mayor of Isfahan was Reza Shāhande, who initiated new construction along the street frontage through the sale of garden lands in Chahār-Bāgh, which had largely been converted into agricultural plots. Gradually, numerous educational, cultural, commercial, and recreational buildings took shape along Chahār-Bāgh-e ʿAbbāsī, including the Āmerīk Hotel, known as Hotel-e Jahān (1928/1307), Cinema Shāpūr (1933/1312), Cinema Iran (1936/1325), Cinema Humāyūn (1940/1319), and Cinema Sepāhān (1940/1319).⁹³ By the late Pahlavi period, Chahār-Bāgh had become a recreational and cultural center, hosting several cafés, libraries, and cabaret alongside commercial establishments. Numerous news-stands and several well-known bookshops were also located along the avenue. For several decades, Chahār-Bāgh remained one of the city’s busiest traffic arteries and a major thoroughfare for automobiles.

During the same period, the face of the southern half of the avenue also changed. Between 1921/1300 and 1951/1330, several spinning or weaving factories⁹⁴ were constructed on the sites of the Safavid gardens of Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā: the Rīsbāf Factory* (1932/1311) on the site of the garden of E‛temād al-Dawle and (probably) Mīrshekār-bāshī; the Wool Industries Factory (1935–1938/1314–1317) on the site of the Zereshk Garden; the New Shahr Reza-Factory (1935–1936/1314–1315) on the site of the garden of Vaqāye‛-nevīs; and the Shahnāz Factory* (1951/1329)⁹⁵; on the sites of the gardens of Dārūghe Daftar and Tufangchī-bāshī.⁹⁶ During these same years, although Chahār-Bāgh-e Bālā was connected to the city’s road network and was easily accessible via the Sī-u-Se Pul,⁹⁷ it nevertheless remained outside, or at least on the marginal edge of, the urban limits of Isfahan.

In the years following the Islamic Revolution, with the expansion of the city toward the south, this section of the avenue experienced increasing commercial vitality. The first and most significant commercial structure of Chahār-Bāgh Bālā was the Park Commercial–Residential Complex*, which was inaugurated in 1980/1358. During the 1980s/1360s, the factories were gradually shut down, and most of them were demolished in the 2000s/1380s, to be replaced by commercial–residential complexes.⁹⁸ Chahār Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī continued its life after the Islamic Revolution with its earlier functions (with the exception of cabarets and liquor shops). The most significant transformation of the avenue in recent decades has been the implementation of several urban development projects. In 1995–1996/1374, the “Revitalization of the Eastern Front of Chahār-Bāgh” project was prepared; after a decade, it was approved in the mid-2000s/1380s and implemented until 2012/1391.⁹⁹ This project consisted of a two-story concrete structure, 230 meters in length, comprising commercial and cultural spaces and a colonnaded arcade, which was widely criticized¹⁰⁰ and, following its completion, failed to attract much public attention and has remained largely inactive. In the 2000s/1380s, the construction of the Isfahan Subway Line One of metro* beneath the entire length of Chahār-Bāgh raised considerable public concerns, particularly because of its proximity to the Chahār-Bāgh Madrasa. This subway line was inaugurated in 2017–2018/1396. Another major transformation was the pedestrianizing project of the avenue, extending from Darvāze Dawlat (today Imam-Hussein Square) to Sī-u-Se Pul, which was first proposed in the late 1990s/1370s and, after receiving UNESCO approval, was submitted to the Isfahan Governorate. This project was realized two decades later. In order to reduce traffic pressure on Chahār-Bāgh, the municipality constructed a parallel street named Pāsdārān between Bāgh-e Guldaste Street and Kamāl Esmāʿīl Street. From 2017 to 2019, following the modification of the paving of the eastern axis, Chahār-Bāgh was converted into a pedestrian thoroughfare, and from May 2019/Urdībehesht1398 onwards, vehicular traffic was banned along the entire length of Chahār-Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī; the western axis was also repaved for pedestrian use.¹⁰¹ The central canal was likewise reconstructed, with efforts made to resemble its original form. The Chahār-Bāgh pedestrian promenade was officially inaugurated in March 2021/Esfand 1399.¹⁰²

It should be noted that during the removal of the street’s asphalt, archaeological excavations were carried out at the site of the Jahān-Namā Palace* and along part of the axis of Chahār-Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī between February 2015/Bahman1393 and May 2015/Urdībehesht 1394, yielding significant findings,¹⁰³ including the discovery of the palace foundations, which have been preserved in an open-air setting for public viewing. At the time of writing this entry (2025/1404), Chahār-Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī remains a pedestrian thoroughfare and is regarded as an important urban promenade. The reflection of Chahār-Bāgh in memoirs, short and long fictions, films, and popular culture constitutes a subject deserving of an independent article. Numerous poets have also depicted Chahār-Bāgh in their poetry, among them Ṣāʾeb Tabrīzī*¹⁰⁴ (d. 1676/1087), Ḍīyāʾ Kafrānī¹⁰⁵ (d. 1642/1052), Ṣādeq Mullā Rajab*¹⁰⁶ (d. 1926/1305), and Malek al-Shu‛arāʾ Bahār¹⁰⁷ (d. 1951/1330). Ṣāʾeb, in the opening verses of one of his love-poems (ghazal), states as follows:

Blessed is the day when I make my dwelling in the fertile land of Isfahan,

So that, in describing its Zāyande-Rūd, I render my pen fluent and eloquent.

Like a gentle breeze, I would circle around its Chahār-Bāgh,

And upon every branch where it may alight, I would make my heart a nest.

Khushā rūzī ke manzel dar savād-e Eṣfahān sāzam

Ze vaṣf-e Zāyande-Rūd-ash khāmeh-rā raṭb al-lesān sāzam

Nasīm-āsā be gard-e sar begardam Chahār-Bāgh-ash rā

Be har shākhī ke beneshīnad del-e man āshīyān sāzam

The Chahār-Bāgh Avenue was registered on 5^th January 1932/15^th Dey 1310 in the National Heritage List of Iran under registration no. 109,¹⁰⁸ and efforts towards its inscription as a World Heritage site are warranted.

/Mohammad Hussein Foroughi and Nazanin Shahidi Marnani/

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Furukawa, Nobuyoshi. safarnāme-ye Furukawa: ‛ūẓv-e heyʾat-e ejrāʾī-ye nakhustīn sefārat-e Japan be Iran dar dure-ye qājār, 1880/1297 AH. Trans. Hāshem Rajabzāde and Kenji Oura. Tehran: Anjuman-e Āthār va Mafākher-e Farhangī, 2005/1384.

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Morier, James Justinian. safarnāme-ye James Morier. Trans. Abū al-Qāsem Sarrī. Tehran: Ṭūs, 2007/1386.

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1. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 542.[↩]
2. Savory, p. 625.[↩]
3. Curzon, vol. 2, p. 47.[↩]
4. Delavalle, p. 474.[↩]
5. This point was located near the old city rampart, which led to one of the city gates known as the Darvāze Dawlat. Eskandar Munshī (2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 544), in describing this location, states: “…and among the city gates there is one gate situated within the precinct of the Naqsh-e Jahān garden and known as the Darb-e Dawlat (gate of the government); from there a street was constructed extending to the bank of the Zāyande-Rūd.”[↩]
6. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 545.[↩]
7. ‛Ālamī, p. 78.[↩]
8. Coste, p. 59; Shujāʿī Eṣfahānī, interview dated October 2025/Mehr 1404.[↩]
9. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 544.[↩]
10. Dehkhudā, s.v. “khīyābān”; see, for example, Qazvīnī, p. 608.[↩]
11. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 542.[↩]
12. Chardin, vol. 4, p. 1524.[↩]
13. Dollié de Landé, p. 41.[↩]
14. Kaempfer, p. 195.[↩]
15. Eskandar Munshī, manuscript no. 816129, p. 175. In this sentence, there is a discrepancy among the manuscripts of tārīkh-e ‛ālam-ārā-ye ‛abbāsī. In Iraj Afshār’s critical edition, the final part of the sentence appears as follows: “…and opposite the Chahār-Bāgh building a large pool, like a lake, was constructed” (Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, pp. 544–545). This phrasing gives rise to the possibility that “Chahār-Bāgh” referred to a specific building within the avenue. Because this sentence is both ambiguous and highly significant, earlier manuscripts of the work were consulted. Manuscript no. 816129 is among the oldest copies of the text and is dated 1040 or 1045 AH. This manuscript clarifies to a considerable extent the author’s intended meaning of the term Chahār-Bāgh (with thanks to Mahdī Golchīn-‛Ārefī for informing the authors of the existence of this manuscript).[↩]
16. Ḥeydar-natāj and Manṣūrī, p. 17.[↩]
17. Bedik, p. 339.[↩]
18. Opposite this garden, there existed another garden bearing the same name. Chardin (vol. 4, p. 1523) identifies one of the two as belonging to the Heydarī dervishes and the other to the Ne‛matī dervishes.[↩]
19. Tavernier, p. 394.[↩]
20. Delavalle, p. 474.[↩]
21. De Bruin, who recorded the distance between the entrances of the two adjacent gardens as 250 paces (p. 124), which is approximately equivalent to 200 meters.[↩]
22. Delavalle, ibid.[↩]
23. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 544: “…and during the spring season, the lofty buildings in Naqsh-e Jahān were laid out, and architects and engineers strove to complete them; and among the city gates there is one gate situated within the precinct of the Naqsh-e Jahān garden and known as the Dareb-e Dawlat. From there a street was constructed extending to the bank of the Zāyande-Rūd; on both sides of the street Chahār-Bāgh gardens were laid out, and their surroundings were allotted to the officials and leading notables of the exalted state, each of whom designed a garden and, at its entrance, constructed a building appropriate to a formal gateway, consisting of an entrance portal, a lofty vaulted passageway, an vaulted porch-style hall, upper chambers, and viewing pavilions, all arranged with the utmost elegance and ornamentation, and decorated with gilded and azure paintings.”[↩]
24. Delavalle, p. 474.[↩]
25. Kaempfer, p. 196.[↩]
26. Coste, p. 38.[↩]
27. Sulṭān Sayyed-Reza Khan, 1923/1302.[↩]
28. The names of the gardens based on Kaempfer’s hand-drawn plan, in order, on the eastern side of the northern half are: Khargāh, Bulbul, Takīyeh, and Ṭāvus-khāneh; on the western side of the northern half: Muthamman, Takht, Tekīye, and Shīr-khāne; on the eastern side of the southern half: Allāh-verdī Khan, Mīrshekār-bāshī, E‛temād al-Dawla, Vaqāye‛-Nevīs, Dārūghe-Daftar, Īshīk Āqāsī-bāshī, Nāẓer, Mīr-Ākhur-bāshī, and Mash‛al-dār; and on the western side of the southern half: Ganj-Ali Khan, Qūrchī-bāshī, Zereshk, Dīvān-beygī, Sufreh-chī-bāshī, Qūllar-Āqāsī, Tūshmāl-bāshī, Tufangchī-bāshī, and Mīhmān-dār (Emāmī, p. 60). This account differs slightly from the names recorded by Chardin (vol. 4, p. 1524). He lists the eastern gardens of the northern half as Khargāh, Bulbul, Tākestān, Khāneqāh-e Heydarī, and Qāsh-khāneh, and the western gardens of the northern half as Hasht-gūsh (Muthamman), Takht, Tūtestān, Khāneqāh-e Ne‛matī, and Shīrān.[↩]
29. On this matter, see Vaḥdatpūr and Valī-Beyg, p. 11.[↩]
30. The complete verse as quoted from tadhkere-ye naṣr-ābādī (p. 548) is as follows: “What a Chahār-Bāgh it is, enhancing delight and pleasure; If one were to call it a second Paradise, it would not be amiss. When my heart sought its chronogram, I declared: “May its sapling grow in accordance with the heart’s desire of the king.”“‛Ajab chahār-bāghīst ‛eshrat-afzāyī / garash thānī-ye khuld gūyand shāyad // chu tārīkh ān del ṭalab kard guftam / nahāl-ash be-kām-e del-e shah bar-āyad.” Naṣrābādī (ibid.) identifies the poet as unknown.[↩]
31. Munajjem Yazdī, p. 151; Naṣrābādī, ibid.; Vaḥīd Qazvīnī, p. 141.[↩]
32. Bābāʾī, p. 155.[↩]
33. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 544.[↩]
34. Shahīdī Marnānī, p. 167.[↩]
35. Ibid[↩]
36. Munajjem Yazdī, p. 361.[↩]
37. Eskandar Munshī, 2003/1382, vol. 2, p. 545.[↩]
38. Tavernier, p. 393; Dollié de Landé, p. 41.[↩]
39. Dollié de Landé, p. 42.[↩]
40. Shujāʿī Eṣfahānī, 2017/1396, p. 41; Chardin, vol. 4, p. 1520.[↩]
41. Delavalle, p. 474.[↩]
42. Holster (p. 79), based on a well-known popular account, states: “Plane trees must be planted with great care at the outset and require suitable soil, otherwise they quickly wither. It is commonly said here that Shah ‛Abbās placed one ashrafī (a gold toman) in the pit before the tree was planted and declared that if the tree failed to grow, the man who planted it would be beheaded. There is certainly some truth in this. Apparently, he agreed to pay one gold tuman for the planting of each tree. In that case, he could be sure that the man would exert every effort to dig a deep pit in the hard ground, replace it with suitable soil, select the best sapling, and water it regularly over several years until it took firm root. If negligence occurred in planting, most of them would dry up, and the beauty and order of the Chahār-Bāgh would never have been achieved.”[↩]
43. Olearius, vol. 2, p. 614.[↩]
44. Tavernier, p. 393.[↩]
45. Kaempfer, p. 195.[↩]
46. Delavalle (p. 474), who considered Chahār-Bāgh superior to the most magnificent streets of Rome, Naples, Genoa, and Palermo; Loti (p. 205), who referred to Chahār-Bāgh as the Champs-Élysées of Isfahan; and Bedik, who, in terms of scale, compared it to Ponte Molle in Rome (p. 339).[↩]
47. Olearius, vol. 2, p. 613[↩]
48. Chardin (vol. 4, p. 1520), who recorded its depth as nine fingers.[↩]
49. Kaempfer, p. 195; see also Dollié de Landé (p. 42), who gives a smaller width of two feet (approximately 0.6 m).[↩]
50. Kaempfer, ibid.[↩]
51. Olearius, vol. 2, p. 613.[↩]
52. Dollié de Landé, p. 42; Tavernier, p. 393.[↩]
53. Tavernier, ibid.[↩]
54. Sulṭān Sayyed-Reza Khan, 1923/1302.[↩]
55. Tavernier, p. 399; Nūr-Sādeqī, p. 45.[↩]
56. Tavernier, ibid.[↩]
57. See Chardin, vol. 4, p. 1815; see also Bābāʾī, p. 155.[↩]
58. Chardin, vol. 4, p. 1524.[↩]
59. Kaempfer, p. 195; Gemelli Careri, p. 83.[↩]
60. According to Naṣrābādī (p. 147), wine was also served in this coffeehouse and sherbet house, which belonged to Shams Tīshī, with the permission of Shah ‛Abbās I.[↩]
61. Chardin, vol. 4, p. 1524.[↩]
62. Munajjem Yazdī, p. 363.[↩]
63. Falsafī, vol. 3, p. 225.[↩]
64. Hunarfar, pp. 686–692.[↩]
65. See the account of John Bell of Antermony, who visited Isfahan during the reign of Shah Sulṭān Ḥussein Ṣafavī (p. 97).[↩]
66. Afḍal al-Mulk, p. 72; see also the account of Jean Otter, who observed Chahār-Bāgh in 1734/1146 or 1147 AH, approximately during the time of Nāder-Shah Afshār (p. 85).[↩]
67. See the account of Guillaume Antoine Olivier, written in 1796/1210 or 1211 AH, approximately during the reign of Muhammad-Shah Qājār (pp. 114–115).[↩]
68. Gobineau, pp. 156–157.[↩]
69. Porter, vol. 1, p. 420.[↩]
70. Hallingbury, p. 59; Morier, Journey 2, p. 204.[↩]
71. Coste, p. 62.[↩]
72. Gobineau, p. 157; Brugsch, vol. 2, p. 414.[↩]
73. Furukawa, p. 45.[↩]
74. Wills, p. 235.[↩]
75. Holster, part 1, p. 78.[↩]
76. Brown, p. 226.[↩]
77. Curzon, vol. 2, p. 48.[↩]
78. Allemand, vol. 2, p. 551.[↩]
79. Ibid.[↩]
80. Holster, part 1, p. 78.[↩]
81. Allemand, vol. 2, p. 957.[↩]
82. This plane tree remained standing at its original location until around 1991/1370, although it had dried out. At that time, in order to prevent potential hazards, it was cut down and transferred to the Chehel-Sutūn Garden, where it is still preserved. For this plane tree, see Vafāmehr, 2025/1404.[↩]
83. Furukawa, p. 236.[↩]
84. Shujāʿī Eṣfahānī, 2017/1396, p. 35[↩]
85. Jāberī Anṣārī, p. 161.[↩]
86. Nūr-Sādeqī, p. 46.[↩]
87. Dieulafoy, p. 271.[↩]
88. Aubin, p. 298.[↩]
89. Loti, p. 186.[↩]
90. Ibid.[↩]
91. See Maẓāherī, p. 51, (Taṣāvīr) illustrations.[↩]
92. For further information on the transformations of Chahār-Bāgh ‛Abbāsī during this decade, see Tūlāīyān, 2018/1397.[↩]
93. Tūlāīyān, pp. 49–74; see also Cinema*: History of Theaters.[↩]
94. See Spinning and Weaving, Industry*.[↩]
95. Savory, p. 625.[↩]
96. Pahlavān-Zāde, pp. 53, 58–60; see also Spinning Mill*.[↩]
97. Since the introduction of automobiles into the city, the passage of all types of vehicles—including heavy vehicles from spinning factories—was permitted over the bridge. In 1933/1312, the passage of heavy vehicles was prohibited; however, for several decades thereafter, passenger cars continued to cross the bridge (Shahīdī Mārnānī, p. 168).[↩]
98. Curzon, vol. 2, p. 47.[↩]
99. Iranian Students News Agency (ISNA), 2016/1395.[↩]
100. On this matter, see “bāztāb-e guzāresh-e vīzhe-ye ṭarḥ-e badane-sāzī-ye sharq-e Chahār-Bāgh-e ‛Abbāsī,” pp. 4–29; Ukhuvvat, pp. 12–18.[↩]
101. Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), 2019/1398.[↩]
102. Nurūzī, 2020/1399.[↩]
103. Shujāʿī Eṣfahānī, 2017/1396, p. 45.[↩]
104. Ṣāʾeb Tabrīzī, vol. 6, p. 3595.[↩]
105. Ādhar Bīgdelī, p. 187.[↩]
106. Ṣādeq Mullā Rajab, pp. 4, 82.[↩]
107. Bahār, vol. 2, p. 1176.[↩]
108. Pāzūkī Ṭarūdī and Shādmher, p. 69.[↩]