Enameling (Mīnākārī, Mīnāsāzī)
Definition
Enamel is a vitreous substance that melts onto the surface of metal objects under high heat, producing a transparent, glass-like finish.[1] Enameling (mīnākārī or mīnāsāzī) is the art of decorating metal surfaces with a layer of enamel. In this process, powdered glass colored with metallic oxides is applied to metals such as gold, copper, bronze, and occasionally silver and iron. The object is then fired in a kiln, causing the enamel layer to fuse permanently to the metal surface and acquire the appearance of a brilliant blue, glass-like coating.[2] An artisan who skillfully carries out this process is known as an enamellist (mīnākār or mīnāsāz). Enameling encompasses several techniques, including painted enamel, cloisonné enamel, and champlevé enamel.[3] Among these, painted enamel* has been the predominant technique in Iran, and today Isfahan is one of the principal centers for the production of painted enamelware.[4] Enameling may also be broadly defined as the artistic and decorative coating of metal surfaces.[5]
Short History
Enameling is an ancient art and technology that has long been employed in a variety of fields, particularly jewelry making and the decorative arts. Among the civilizations of the East, Iran occupies a distinguished position in the development of this craft. Iranian artisans produced works characterized by the harmonious combination of brilliant colors and intricate arabesque designs. Alongside the Byzantine Empire and China, Iran was one of the principal centers in the early development of enameling. Surviving objects from the Sasanian and Islamic periods attest to the high quality of enamel colors and painted decoration on metal surfaces. Over time, this artistic tradition spread to other parts of the world, and Iranian works served as an important source of inspiration for the development of enameling in neighboring regions.[6]
During the Safavid* period, the art of enameling on metal attained an exceptional level of refinement. Enamel colors became increasingly brilliant, while decorative designs were derived primarily from floral and animal motifs, as well as calligraphic compositions.[7] Enamel artists of this period also displayed remarkable skill in depicting scenes of royal banquets, hunting expeditions, and equestrian activities on a wide variety of objects. Arabesque (eslīmī) and stylized floral (khatāʾī) motifs predominated in this kind of decoration, and enamelwork was executed mainly on copper, with gold and, occasionally, silver also serving as the base metal.[8] Over time, silver came to be increasingly employed for the production of objects such as boxes, bowls, and spoons.[9] The French traveler Jean Chardin* described a Safavid enamelwork produced in Isfahan that was decorated with birds and animals set against a floral ground in bright shades of light blue, green, yellow, and red.[10]
Among the most distinguished enamellist of the Safavid period was Rashīdā Zarrgar Mīnākār, a master goldsmith and enamellist who enjoyed a position of great esteem at the court of Shah ‛Abbās II* (r. 1642–1666/1052–1077). He died during the early years of the reign of Shah Sulaymān* (r. 1666 or 1667–1694/1077 or 1078–1105/).[11]Another prominent enamellist of the late Safavid period was Ja‛far Khan Mīnā-kār, whose principal works were produced during the reign of Shah Sulṭān Hussein* (r. 1694–1722/1105–1135).[12]
During the Qajar period, particularly under Fatḥ-Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834/1212–1250), the art of enameling underwent significant changes and assumed a more naturalistic and tangible character. The Qajar court actively patronized and encouraged the craft, enabling enamelware to find its way into the residences of the nobility and the social elite.[13] During this period, enameling was executed predominantly on gold and silver and was often embellished with precious stones. One of the distinctive features of Qajar enamelwork is the presence of artists’ signatures on many surviving pieces, making it possible to identify their makers.[14] Among the best-known enamellists of the period were Kāẓem b. Najaf-Ali, Muhammad Ja‛far b. Najaf-Ali, Aḥmad b. Najaf-Ali,[15] Hussein-Ali, (Ali), Muhammad Bāqer (Bāqer) and Muhammad Ebrāhīm, whose signed works have survived to the present (Figs. 1–4). Despite this flourishing, enameling entered a period of decline to the end of the Qajar era, and only a limited number of artists continued to practice the craft.
| Fig. 1. Enameled brooch bearing the signature “Ghulām Khāne-zād Ali.”[16]
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Fig. 2. Enameled brooch signed “Ghulām Khāne-zād Bāqir.”[17]
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Fig. 3. Enameled pipe bowl inscribed “Rāqamahū Muhammad Ebrāhīm.”[18]
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Fig. 4. Enameled pipe bowl signed “Muhammad Ja‛far b. Najaf-Ali,” dated 1866–67/1283.[19]
Today, examples of Iranian enamelwork dating from the Achaemenid, Sasanian,[20] medieval Islamic, Zand[21], and Qajar periods are preserved in museums in Iran and other countries. According to the available sources, the existing information relates primarily to the early history of enameling, the artists active in this field, and descriptions of works belonging to earlier periods. Nevertheless, a considerable number of Qajar enamel objects, some of which bear the signatures of their makers, are preserved in museums and various collections around the world and remain accessible for study. These works are characterized by their brilliant colors and extensive use of arabesque motifs, reflecting the aesthetic qualities and artistic taste of the Iranian tradition.[22]
Contemporary Enameling in Isfahan
Traditional Iranian enameling continues to flourish in the city of Isfahan, where artisans have preserved traditional techniques while continuing to produce enameled wares distinguished by their characteristic turquoise and green colors.
In the modern period, the art of enameling was revived around 1931/1310. by Shukrullāh Ṣanī‛-zāde* and subsequently elevated to a new level of artistic excellence. He trained numerous students, each of whom contributed to the expansion and flourishing of this art.[23] Drawing upon the knowledge and experience he had inherited from his grandfather, Mīrzā ‛Abdul-Hussein Ṣanī‛ Humāyūn*, a well-known artist of the Qajar period. Ṣanī‛-zāde played a decisive role in the revival and development of enameling.[24] As a highly accomplished painter, and relying on his family’s artistic tradition, he undertook the restoration of this craft. However, because the preparation of enamel colors and tools by traditional methods had become exceedingly difficult after the end of the Qajar period,[25] Ṣanī‛-zāde sought the assistance of Max Otto Schönemann*, a German who was then active in Isfahan in establishing factories[26] and importing German industrial products into Iran, including textiles, electrical equipment, and photographic materials, to obtain enamel pigments. Ṣanī‛-zāde consequently adopted German-made colors and produced works in the technique of painted enamel.[27] These works attracted Schönemann’s attention, and in return for his industrial imports he exported them to Germany. Following Schönemann’s expulsion from Iran during the Second World War (1941/1320), Ṣanī‛-zāde further advanced the art of enameling, both quantitatively and qualitatively, through his own innovations. Other artists—including ‛Abdullāh Muṣavver Ṭāherī, the Ne‛matullāhī brothers, Ebrāhīm Zarqūnī, Aḥmad Rāʾeḍ, Sharīfiyān, Ghulām-Hussein Feyḍullāhī*, Mahdī Ghaffārīyān, Hussein Hunar-dūst, and Ali Vālīyān—subsequently continued to develop the art and produce enamel works.[28]
Technology of Enamelware
Base Metal
The choice of the base metal on which the enamel is applied is of considerable importance. The metals used as the substrate or body for enamelware include gold, silver, brass, and copper. Today, owing to its reasonable cost, malleability, and ductility, copper is the metal most commonly used in enameling. The copper sheets employed for this purpose are generally 0.7 or 0.8 mm thick, although sheets measuring 1 mm or more are sometimes used for large-scale or repoussé works. It should be noted that the copper used for enameling must be pure sheet copper. Copper containing impurities is unsuitable for this purpose because it tends to delaminate, causing the enamel coating to crack.[29] The process begins with a coppersmith shaping the intended object—such as a plate, vase, or box—to the required form and dimensions. The first stage in production is the preparation of the metal body, which is usually carried out by one of two methods: forming or hammering. In the forming method, a specially prepared die for a plate, vase, or other object is placed between the mold and the clamp of the machine. As pressure is applied by the weight, the die rotates simultaneously to shape the metal. In the hammering method, however, the object is gradually formed into the desired shape using tools such as various hammers, shaping rods, tongs, and an anvil.¹⁸ After hammering—a technique that is less common today—the object undergoes annealing. In the terminology of the craft, annealing refers to heating the copper object in a fire until it becomes red hot and then immediately immersing it in water. This process prevents the copper from becoming brittle and improves its flexibility.[30] The oxide scale that forms on the surface of the copper is then removed through a cleaning process known as zāghāb. In this process, hydrochloric acid is diluted with water, and the copper object is immersed in the solution for less than one minute. It is then removed and thoroughly washed with water to eliminate grease and the oxidized layer adhering to the surface. This procedure, which is essentially a form of acid pickling, enables the enamel glaze to adhere more effectively to the copper.[31]
Enamel Glaze and Colors
Enamel glaze is a hard, glass-like material used not only in the art of enameling but also as a glaze for earthenware and porcelain, although fired at different temperatures. The composition of enamel glaze may be summarized as follows: white enamel glaze consists of a mixture of flint (silica), crystal, lead, and tin. The quality of enameling depends to a considerable extent on a proper understanding of the type of glaze employed and the selection of appropriate metal oxides to achieve the desired visual effect. The basic composition of the glaze is as follows: silica serves as the principal glass-forming material; lead is added to lower the melting point and increase transparency; and alkalis are used to improve fusibility and stability.[32] The colors used in enameling are derived primarily from metal oxides. Each color possesses its own melting characteristics and degree of transparency; therefore, it must be fired at an appropriate temperature to ensure the quality of the finished work.[33]
The following table presents the metal oxides used to produce the principal colors in enameling, based on the studies of Sayyed Muhammad Faqīhī[34] and the data provided in Maryon’s work.
Table 1. Pigments Used in Enameling
| Color | Chemical Composition / Oxide Used | Remarks |
| Purple | A mixture of crystal, borax, saltpeter, and dissolved gold | — |
| Brown | A mixture of iron oxide, chromium oxide, and zinc oxide | — |
| Red | Copper oxide | Produces shades ranging from red to purple |
| Blue | Cobalt oxide and zinc oxide | Produces deep, transparent blues (the characteristic color of Iranian enameling) |
| Green | Copper oxide or chromium oxide | Produces emerald-green shades |
| Yellow | Uranium or antimony compounds | Produces bright yellow or golden-yellow hues |
| White | Tin oxide | Produces an opaque, covering white |
| Black | A mixture of manganese, iron, and cobalt oxides | Produces either glossy or matte black |
| Turquoise | Flux combined with copper oxide under specific firing conditions | The characteristic color of Iranian enameling |
The brilliance of Iranian enamel colors results from the use of copper and cobalt oxides on a lead-rich flux, producing the characteristic turquoise color.[35]
Binder
Binder (bast), or adhesive medium, is essential in enameling and is used to bind powdered pigments during painting.[36] As shown in Table 2, the binders used in enameling include water, clove oil, tragacanth gum, and gum Arabic; however, in the traditional enameling of Isfahan, only gum Arabic is used as the binder. Enamel colors are classified as pigments and settle quickly; binders keep these colors in suspension and make them easier to apply to the metal surface with a brush.[37] This binder is used only to hold the enamel particles in place until firing and is completely burned off in the kiln. Some enamellists prefer to use tragacanth gum or other plant gums dissolved in water as a temporary binder for enamel colors.[38] In the traditional method of enameling in Isfahan, the binder consists of Arabic gum diluted with water, which causes the powdered enamel colors to cohere during painting and makes them suitable for brushwork. Adding a small amount of glycerin to the binder also slows the drying of the color and makes it easier to scrape or remove during the working process.
Table 2. Binders Used in Enameling
| Binder | Function and Characteristics | Remarks |
| Water | The simplest binder | Temporarily holds the enamel particles together before firing, preventing them from dispersing. |
| Clove oil | Oil-based binder with slow evaporation | Used for more precise work and greater control during application to the metal surface. |
| Tragacanth gum | Plant gum dissolved in water | Provides better adhesion between the enamel powder and the metal surface; mainly used for fine work. |
| Other plant gums | Alternatives to tragacanth gum | Such as Arabic gum; used to hold the pigment particles together. |
Kiln and Firing of Enamelware
A traditional enameling kiln consists of five principal components: a brick structure, a refractory metal chamber, an air blower, an oil burner, and a fuel tank.
The brick structure of the kiln is rectangular in plan and is constructed in two stages. In the first stage, the brick walls are built to a height of approximately 50 cm, leaving an opening for the installation of the oil burner. Next, supporting ledges are constructed on both sides of the kiln to accommodate the refractory metal chamber, which has previously been fabricated from heat-resistant iron in the form of a rectangular box with a hinged door. This chamber should be positioned so that a clearance of approximately 15.5–20 cm is maintained between its outer walls and the brick structure of the kiln on three sides.
In the second stage, after the refractory metal chamber has been positioned on the supporting ledges, the surrounding brick walls are built up in the same manner until they reach the upper section of the kiln. At this stage, the top of the kiln is closed with a vaulted roof, while an opening for a chimney is provided in the vault to allow the smoke generated by combustion to escape easily from around the metal chamber without entering its interior, which constitutes the main firing chamber of the kiln.⁴¹ It should be noted that enameled objects must never be exposed to direct flame. This requirement is the principal reason why the construction of an enameling kiln differs fundamentally from that of kilns used for tile production.[39]
A kiln used for enameling must be capable of reaching bright red heat, approximately 850°C. Enamelware must be fired rapidly; if the pieces remain in the kiln for too long, the colors may change or burn. When the glaze has matured properly, its surface should appear smooth and glossy. The success of the process depends largely on accurate control of the firing. If the temperature is too low, the enamel surface remains rough and granular; if it is too high, the colors may run or become dull.[40] The usual firing temperature ranges from 750 to 850°C, allowing the enamel to melt and bond to the metal surface.[41] Traditional Iranian techniques often involved successive firings in the kiln, enabling the artist to apply the colors carefully in successive layers.[42]
In contemporary workshops, the kilns used are no longer charcoal- or oil-fired, as they were in the past; instead, small gas-fired or electric kilns are employed.
Characteristics of Enamelware
Properly made enamelware possesses a number of distinctive characteristics, as outlined below.
A well-made enameled object is not dull in appearance. It can be washed with water and a sponge and may even be cleaned with household detergents. Heat has no adverse effect on its surface, and it is resistant to a wide range of weather conditions. If its surface is rubbed with sharp or pointed objects, it does not readily show scratches. If dropped or subjected to impact, an enameled object may develop a small chip along its edge; such damage, however, can be repaired. Enamelware is resistant to most acids, with the exception of certain acids, such as sulfuric acid. Even after many years of use, it regains its original brilliance and transparency when washed. Enamelware may be used for a variety of purposes, including as dinner plates, fruit dishes, beverage cups, and other household utensils. When the surface of an enameled object is touched, the slight relief created by the different colors can be felt. Finally, it should be noted that no two enameled objects are exactly alike, since each piece is handcrafted and may exhibit slight variations from those produced previously.[43]
Types of Enameling
In Isfahan, enameling is practiced predominantly in the form of painted enamel, owing to the presence of accomplished painters in the city. In addition, techniques known as ḥufreʾī (champlevé) and shekarī have been practiced over the past decades, while khāne-bandī (cloisonné) enamel has been produced in recent years.⁴⁶
| Table 3. Types of Enameling | ||
| 5. Painted enamel | 6. Cloisonné enamel (khānah-bandī) Qajar period.[44] | 7. Shekarī enamel, a work by Ebrāhīm Zarqūnī. |
| 8. Jeweled enamel (muraṣṣa‛), Qajar period. Present location: Private collection.
|
||
/Atefeh Haddad/
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[1] Pākbāz, p. 1468.
[2] Henry, p. 735.
[3] Smith, p. 213–214.
[4] Feyḍullāhī, pp. 16, 26.
[5] Ṣanī‛-zāde, 2011/1390, p. 34.
[6] Winter, p. 9.
[7] Unsworth, p. 5.
[8] Eslāmī and Rahnamūn, pp. 12–13.
[9] Fisher, p. 2.
[10] Fisher, p. 2.
[11] Humāyī, p. 364.
[12] Ibid., p. 366.
[13] Rahīmī, p. 131.
[14] Eslāmī and Rahnamūn, pp. 12–13.
[15] Wilson, p. 189; Karīmzāde Tabrīzī, p. 55.
[16] https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/an-enamelled-portrait-medallion-signed-ghulam-khanzadeh-6065474-details.aspx
[17] Rogers, p. 376.
[18] http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O344605/pipe-head-muhammad-ibrahim/
[19] https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2015/arts-islamic-world-l15223/lot.390.html
[20] Hunarfar, pp. 161–162.
[21] Ṣanī‛-zāde, 2012/1391, p. 55.
[22] Fisher, pp. 98–99.
[23] Hunarfar, p. 163.
[24] Ghulām-Reza Feyḍullāhī, Interview, 2019/1398.
[25] Ṣanī‛-zāde, 2011/1390, p. 35.
[26] Humāyī, p. 336.
[27] Ṣanī‛-zāde, 2011/1390, p. 35.
[28] Ḥeydar Ṣanī‛-zāde, Interview, 2025/1404.
[29] Feyḍullāhī, p. 30.
[30] Rahīmī, p. 133.
[31] Feyḍullāhī, pp. 30–31.
[32] Fisher, pp. 37–41.
[33] Winter, pp. 19–21.
[34] Faqīhī, pp. 257–263.
[35] Strange, p. 61.
[36] Unsworth, pp. 96–100.
[37] Sharīfzāde, p. 35.
[38] Fisher, pp. 44–46.
[39] Faqīhī, p. 263.
[40] Fisher, pp. 47–52.
[41] Winter, p. 29.
[42] Seeler, pp. 20–25.
[43] Feyḍullāhī, pp. 32–33.
[44] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2026.
